Generation Z
Cohort born from the mid-to-late 1990s to early 2010s / From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Generation Z (often shortened to Gen Z), colloquially known as Zoomers,[1][2][3] is the demographic cohort succeeding Millennials and preceding Generation Alpha. Researchers and popular media use the mid-to-late 1990s as starting birth years and the early 2010s as ending birth years. Most members of Generation Z are the children of Generation X or older Millennials.[4][5]
As the first social generation to have grown up with access to the Internet and portable digital technology from a young age, members of Generation Z, even if not necessarily digitally literate, have been dubbed "digital natives".[6][7][8][9] Moreover, the negative effects of screen time are most pronounced in adolescents, as compared to younger children.[10] Compared to previous generations, members of Generation Z tend to live more slowly than their predecessors when they were their age,[11][12] have lower rates of teenage pregnancies, and consume alcohol (but not necessarily other psychoactive drugs) less often.[13][14][15] Generation Z teenagers are more concerned than older generations with academic performance and job prospects,[16][11] and are better at delaying gratification than their counterparts from the 1960s, despite concerns to the contrary.[17] Sexting among adolescents has grown in prevalence; the consequences of this remain poorly understood.[18] Youth subcultures have not disappeared, but they have been quieter.[19][20] Nostalgia is a major theme of youth culture in the 2010s and 2020s.[21][22][23]
Globally, there is evidence that the average age of pubertal onset among girls has decreased considerably compared to the 20th century, with implications for their welfare and their future.[24][25][26][27][28] Furthermore, the prevalence of allergies among adolescents and young adults in Generation Z is greater than the general population;[29][30] there is greater awareness and diagnosis of mental health conditions,[16][15][31][32] and sleep deprivation is more frequently reported.[7][33][34] In many countries, Gen Z youth are more likely to be diagnosed with intellectual disabilities and psychiatric disorders than older generations.[35][36]
Around the world, members of Generation Z are spending more time on electronic devices and less time reading books than before,[37][38][39] with implications for their attention spans,[40][41] vocabulary,[42][43] academic performance,[44] and future economic contributions.[37] In Asia, educators in the 2000s and 2010s typically sought out and nourished top students; in Western Europe and the United States, the emphasis was on poor performers.[45] Furthermore, East Asian and Singaporean students consistently earned the top spots in international standardized tests in the 2010s.[46][47][48][49]
The name Generation Z is a reference to the fact that it is the second generation after Generation X, continuing the alphabetical sequence from Generation Y (Millennials).[50][51]
Other proposed names for the generation included iGeneration,[52] Homeland Generation,[53] Net Gen,[52] Digital Natives,[52] Neo-Digital Natives,[54] Pluralist Generation,[52] Internet Generation,[55] Centennials,[56] and Post-Millennials.[57]
While there is no scientific process for deciding when a name has stuck, the momentum is clearly behind Gen Z.
Michael Dimmock, Pew Research Center[58]
The rapper MC Lars used the term iGeneration as early as 2005, as a song title.[59] Psychology professor and author Jean Twenge also used the term, intending it as the title of her 2006 book about Millennials but changing the title to Generation Me at the insistence of her publisher. Twenge later used the term for her 2017 book iGen. Others also claim to have coined the name.[52]
Author Neil Howe coined the term Homeland Generation in 2014, as a continuation of the Strauss–Howe generational theory with William Strauss. The term Homeland refers to being the first generation to enter childhood after protective surveillance state measures, like the Department of Homeland Security, were put into effect following the September 11 attacks.[53]
The Pew Research Center surveyed the various names for this cohort on Google Trends in 2019 and found that in the U.S., the term Generation Z was overwhelmingly the most popular, from then on calling it Gen Z in their research.[60] The Merriam-Webster and Oxford dictionaries both have official entries for Generation Z.[58]
In Japan, the cohort is described as neo-digital natives, a step beyond the previous cohort described as digital natives. Digital natives primarily communicate by text or voice, while neo-digital natives use video, video-telephony, and movies. This emphasizes the shift from PC to mobile and text to video among the neo-digital population.[54]
Zoomer is an informal term used to refer to members of Generation Z.[2] It combines the shorthand boomer, referring to baby boomers, with the "Z" from Generation Z. Zoomer in its current incarnation skyrocketed in popularity in 2018, when it was used in a 4chan internet meme mocking Gen Z adolescents via a Wojak caricature dubbed a "Zoomer".[61][62] Merriam-Webster's records suggest the use of the term zoomer in the sense of Generation Z dates back at least as far as 2016. It was added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in October 2021[1] and to Dictionary.com in January 2020.[63] Prior to this, zoomer was occasionally used to describe particularly active baby boomers.[1]
Researchers and popular media have loosely used the mid-to-late 1990s as starting birth years and the early 2010s as ending birth years for defining Generation Z.
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines Generation Z as "the generation of people born in the late 1990s and early 2000s."[64] The Collins Dictionary define Generation Z as "members of the generation of people born between the mid-1990s and mid-2010s.[65] The Oxford Dictionaries define Generation Z as "the group of people who were born between the late 1990s and the early 2010s, who are regarded as being very familiar with the internet."[66] Encyclopedia Britannica defines Generation Z as "Americans born during the late 1990s and early 2000s."[67]
The Pew Research Center has defined 1997 as the starting birth year for Generation Z, basing this on "different formative experiences", such as new technological and socioeconomic developments, as well as growing up in a world after the September 11 attacks.[68] Pew has not specified an endpoint for Generation Z, but used 2012 as a tentative endpoint for their 2019 report.[68] Numerous news outlets use a starting birth year of 1997, often citing Pew Research Center.[lower-alpha 1] Various think tanks and analytics companies also have set a 1997 start date,[lower-alpha 2] as do various management and consulting firms.[lower-alpha 3] In a 2022 report, the U.S. Census designates Generation Z as "the youngest generation with adult members (born 1997 to 2013)."[86] Statistics Canada used 1997 to 2012, citing Pew Research Center, in a 2022 publication analyzing their 2021 census.[87] The Library of Congress uses 1997 to 2012, citing Pew Research as well.[88]
Other news outlets have used 1995 as the starting birth year of Generation Z.[lower-alpha 4] As do various management and consulting firms.[lower-alpha 5] Psychologist Jean Twenge defines Generation Z as the "iGeneration" with a cohort of those born between 1995 and 2012.[96] The Australian Bureau of Statistics use 1996 to 2010 to define Generation Z in a 2021 Census report.[97] Similarly, various management and consulting firms have used 1996 as a starting date for Generation Z.[lower-alpha 6]
Individuals born in the Millennial and Generation Z cusp years have been sometimes identified as a "microgeneration" with characteristics of both generations. The most common name given for these cuspers is Zillennials.[101][102]
Happiness and personal values
The Economist has described Generation Z as a more educated, well-behaved, stressed and depressed generation in comparison to previous generations.[16] In 2016, the Varkey Foundation and Populus conducted an international study examining the attitudes of over 20,000 people aged 15 to 21 in twenty countries: Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Japan, New Zealand, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States. They found that Gen Z youth were happy overall with the states of affairs in their personal lives (59%). The most unhappy young people were from South Korea (29%) and Japan (28%) while the happiest hailed from Indonesia (90%) and Nigeria (78%). In order to determine the overall 'happiness score' for each country, researchers subtracted the percentage of people who said they were unhappy from that of those who said they were happy. The most important sources of happiness were being physically and mentally healthy (94%), having a good relationship with one's family (92%), and one's friends (91%). In general, respondents who were younger and male tended to be happier. Religious faith came in last at 44%. Nevertheless, religion was a major source of happiness for Gen Z youth from Indonesia (93%), Nigeria (86%), Turkey (71%), China, and Brazil (both 70%). The top reasons for anxiety and stress were money (51%) and school (46%); social media and having access to basic resources (such as food and water) finished the list, both at 10%. Concerns over food and water were most serious in China (19%), India (16%), and Indonesia (16%); young Indians were also more likely than average to report stress due to social media (19%).[103]
According to the aforementioned study by the Varkey Foundation, the most important personal values to these people were helping their families and themselves get ahead in life (both 27%), followed by honesty (26%). Looking beyond their local communities came last at 6%. Familial values were especially strong in South America (34%) while individualism and the entrepreneurial spirit proved popular in Africa (37%). People who influenced youths the most were parents (89%), friends (79%), and teachers (70%). Celebrities (30%) and politicians (17%) came last. In general, young men were more likely to be influenced by athletes and politicians than young women, who preferred books and fictional characters. Celebrity culture was especially influential in China (60%) and Nigeria (71%) and particularly irrelevant in Argentina and Turkey (both 19%). For young people, the most important factors for their current or future careers were the possibility of honing their skills (24%), and income (23%) while the most unimportant factors were fame (3%) and whether or not the organization they worked for made a positive impact on the world (13%). The most important factors for young people when thinking about their futures were their families (47%) and their health (21%); the welfare of the world at large (4%) and their local communities (1%) bottomed the list.[103]
Common culture
During the 2000s and especially the 2010s, youth subcultures that were as influential as what existed during the late 20th century became scarcer and quieter, at least in real life though not necessarily on the Internet, and more ridden with irony and self-consciousness due to the awareness of incessant peer surveillance.[19][20] In Germany, for instance, youth appears more interested in a more mainstream lifestyle with goals such as finishing school, owning a home in the suburbs, maintaining friendships and family relationships, and stable employment, rather than popular culture, glamor, or consumerism.[104]
Boundaries between the different youth subcultures appear to have been blurred, and nostalgic sentiments have risen.[19][20] Although nostalgia is normally associated with the elderly, this sentiment is now commonplace among those who came of age during the 2010s and 2020s. Struggling with present realities, Millennials and Generation Z long for the past, when life seemed simpler and less stressful, even if they have themselves never experienced it.[23] For example, although an aesthetic dubbed 'cottagecore' in 2018 has been around for many years,[105] it has become a subculture of Generation Z,[21] especially on various social media networks in the wake of the mass lockdowns imposed to combat the spread of COVID-19.[106] It is a form of escapism[105] and aspirational nostalgia.[22] Cottagecore became even more popular thanks to the commercial success of the 2020 album Folklore by musician Taylor Swift.[107][108][109]
Nostalgia culture among Generation Z even extends to the usage of automobiles; in some countries, such as Indonesia, there are social media communities surrounding the purchasing used cars from earlier decades.[110]
A survey conducted by OnePoll in 2018 found that while museums and heritage sites remained popular among Britons between the ages of 18 and 30, 19% did not visit one in the previous year. There was a big gender gap in attitudes, with 16% of female respondents and 26% of male respondents saying they never visited museums. Generation Z preferred staying home and watching television or browsing social media networks to visiting museums or galleries. The researchers also found that cheaper tickets, more interactive exhibitions, a greater variety of events, more food and beverage options, more convenient opening hours, and greater online presence could attract the attention of more young people.[111] On the other hand, vintage fashion is growing in popularity among Millennial and Generation Z consumers.[112]
A 2019 report by Childwise found that children between the ages of five and sixteen in the U.K. spent an average of three hours each day online. Around 70% watched Netflix in the past week and only 10% watched their favorite programs on television. Among those who watched on-demand shows, 58% did so on a mobile phone, 51% on a television set, 40% via a tablet, 35% on a gaming console, and 27% on a laptop. About one out of four came from families with voice-command computer assistants such as Alexa. YouTube and Snapchat are the most popular gateways for music and video discovery. Childwise also found that certain television series aired between the 1990s and early 2000s, such as Friends, proved popular among young people of the 2010s.[113]
Figures from Nielsen and Magna Global revealed that the viewership of children's cable television channels such as Disney Channel, Cartoon Network, and Nickelodeon continued their steady decline from the early 2010s, with little to no alleviating effects due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which forced many parents and their children to stay at home. On the other hand, streaming services saw healthy growth.[114][115] Disney Channel in particular lost a third of their viewers in 2020, leading to closures in Scandinavia, the United Kingdom, Australia, and Southeast Asia.[115]
During the first two decades of the 21st century, writing and reading fan fiction and creating fandoms of fictional works became a prevalent activity worldwide. Demographic data from various depositories revealed that those who read and wrote fan fiction were overwhelmingly young, in their teens and twenties, and female.[116][117][118] For example, an analysis published in 2019 by data scientists Cecilia Aragon and Katie Davis (researcher) of the site FanFiction.Net showed that some 60 billion words of contents were added during the previous 20 years by 10 million English-speaking people whose median age was 151⁄2 years.[118] Fan fiction writers base their work on various internationally popular cultural phenomena such as K-pop, anime, video games, Disney films, Star Trek, Harry Potter, Twilight, furry fandom, Doctor Who, Star Wars, Stranger Things, and My Little Pony, known as 'canon', as well as other things they considered important to their lives, like natural disasters.[116][117][118] Much of fan fiction concerns the romantic pairing of fictional characters of interest, or 'shipping'.[119] Aragon and Davis argued that writing fan fiction stories could help young people combat social isolation and hone their writing skills outside of school in an environment of like-minded people where they can receive (anonymous) constructive feedback, what they call 'distributed mentoring'.[118] Informatics specialist Rebecca Black added that fan fiction writing could also be a useful resource for English-language learners. Indeed, the analysis of Aragon and Davis showed that for every 650 reviews a fan fiction writer receives, their vocabulary improved by one year of age, though this may not generalize to older cohorts.[120] On the other hand, children browsing fan fiction contents might be exposed to cyberbullying, crude comments, and other inappropriate materials.[119]
Generation Z has a plethora of options when it comes to music consumption, allowing for a highly personalized experience.[121] According to digital media company Sweety High's 2018 Gen Z Music Consumption & Spending Report, Spotify ranked first for music listening among Gen Z females, terrestrial radio ranked second, while YouTube was reported to be the preferred platform for music discovery.[122] In mid-2023, Spotify reported growth above expectation in the number of subscribers among Generation Z.[123] Additional research showed that within the past few decades, popular music has gotten slower; that majorities of listeners young and old preferred older songs rather than keeping up with new ones; that the language of popular songs was becoming more negative psychologically; and that lyrics were becoming simpler and more repetitive, approaching one-word sheets, something measurable by observing how efficiently lossless compression algorithms (such as the LZ algorithm) handled them.[124] Sad music is quite popular among adolescents, though it can dampen their moods, especially among girls.[121]
A 2020 survey conducted by The Center for Generational Kinetics, on 1000 members of Generation Z and 1000 Millennials, suggests that Generation Z still would like to travel, despite the COVID-19 pandemic and the recession it induced. However, Generation Z is more likely to look carefully for package deals that would bring them the most value for their money, as many of them are already saving money for buying a house and for retirement, and they prefer more physically active trips. Mobile-friendly websites and social-media engagements are both important.[125]
In South Korea, people below the age of 40 are increasingly interested in relocating from the cities, especially Seoul, to the countryside and working on the farm. Working in a conglomerate like Samsung or Hyundai no longer appeals to young people, many of whom prefer to avoid becoming a workaholic or are pessimistic about their ability to be as successful as their fathers.[126] They take advantage of the Internet to market and sell their fresh produce. In the United Kingdom, teenagers now prefer to get their news from social-media networks such as Instagram and TikTok and the video-sharing site YouTube rather than more traditional media, such as radio or television.[127]
Reading habits
In New Zealand, child development psychologist Tom Nicholson noted a marked decline in vocabulary usage and reading among schoolchildren, many of whom are reluctant to use the dictionary. According to a 2008 survey[needs update] by the National Education Monitoring Project, about one in five four-year and eight-year pupils read books as a hobby, a ten-percent drop from 2000.[42]
In the United Kingdom, a survey of 2,000 parents and children from 2013 by Nielsen Book found that 36% of children read books for pleasure on a daily basis, 60% on a weekly basis, and 72% were read to by their parents at least once per week. Among British children, the most popular leisure activities were watching television (36%), reading (32%), social networking (20%), watching YouTube videos (17%), and playing games on mobile phones (16%). Between 2012 and 2013, children reported spending more time with video games, YouTube, and texting but less time reading (down eight percent). Among children between the ages of 11 and 17, the share of non-readers grew from 13% to 27% between 2012 and 2013, those who read once to thrice a month (occasional readers) dropped from 45% to 38%, those who read for no more than an average of 15 minutes per week (light readers) rose from 23% to 27%, those who read between 15 and 45 minutes per week (medium readers) declined from 23% to 17%, and those who read at least 45 minutes a week (heavy readers) grew slightly from 15% to 16%.[128]
A survey by the National Literacy Trust from 2019 showed that only 26% of people below the age of 18 spent at least some time each day reading, the lowest level since records began in 2005. Interest in reading for pleasure declined with age, with five- to eight-year-olds being twice as likely to say they enjoyed reading compared to fourteen- to sixteen-year-olds. There was a significant gender gap in voluntary reading, with only 47% of boys compared to 60% of girls said they read for pleasure. One in three children reported having trouble finding something interesting to read.[38]
The aforementioned Nielsen Book survey found that the share of British households with at least one electronic tablet rose from 24% to 50% between 2012 and 2013.[128] According to a 2020 Childwise report based on interviews with 2,200 British children between the ages of five and sixteen, young people today are highly dependent on their mobile phones. Most now get their first device at the age of seven. By the age of eleven, having a cell phone became almost universal. Among those aged seven to sixteen, the average time spent on the phone each day is three and a third hours. 57% said they went to bed with their phones beside them and 44% told the interviewers they felt "uncomfortable" in the absence of their phones. Due to the nature of this technology—cell phones are personal and private devices—it can be difficult for parents to monitor their children's activities and shield them from inappropriate content.[129]
According to the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), fourth graders in 2016 were markedly less enthusiastic about reading than their predecessors in 2001 in 13 out of 20 countries and territories surveyed while their parents were even less keen on reading than they were.[130]
- Median age by country in years in 2017. The youth bulge is evident in parts of Latin America, Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia.
- Population pyramid of the world in 2018
Although many countries have aging populations and declining birth rates, Generation Z is currently the largest generation on Earth.[131] Bloomberg's analysis of United Nations data predicted that, in 2019, members of Generation Z accounted for 2.47 billion (32%) of the 7.7 billion inhabitants of Earth, surpassing the Millennial population of 2.43 billion. The generational cutoff of Generation Z and Millennials for this analysis was placed at 2000 to 2001.[132][133]
Africa
Generation Z currently comprises the majority of the population of Africa.[134] In 2017, 60% of the 1.2 billion people living in Africa fell below the age of 25.[135]
In 2019, 46% of the South African population, or 27.5 million people, are members of Generation Z.[136]
Statistical projections from the United Nations in 2019 suggest that, in 2020, the people of Niger had a median age of 15.2, Mali 16.3, Chad 16.6, Somalia, Uganda, and Angola all 16.7, the Democratic Republic of the Congo 17.0, Burundi 17.3, Mozambique and Zambia both 17.6. This means that more than half of their populations were born in the first two decades of the 21st century. These are the world's youngest countries by median age.[137]
Asia
According to a 2022 McKinsey & Company insight, Generation Z will account for a quarter of the population of the Asia-Pacific region by 2025, and possess a global spending power of approximately US$140bn by 2030.[138]
As a result of cultural ideals, government policy, and modern medicine, there have been severe gender population imbalances in China and India. According to the United Nations, in 2018, there were 112 Chinese males for every hundred females ages 15 to 29; in India, there were 111 males for every hundred females in that age group. China had a total of 34 million excess males and India 37 million, more than the entire population of Malaysia. Together, China and India had a combined 50 million excess males under the age of 20. Such a discrepancy fuels loneliness epidemics, human trafficking (from elsewhere in Asia, such as Cambodia and Vietnam), and prostitution, among other societal problems.[139]
Europe
Out of the approximately 66.8 million people of the UK in 2019, there were approximately 12.6 million people (18.8%) in Generation Z, if defined as those born from 1997 to 2012.[140]
Generation Z is the most diverse generation in the European Union in regards to national origin.[141] In Europe generally, 13.9% of those ages 14 and younger in 2019 (which includes older Generation Alpha) were born in another EU Member State, and 6.6% were born outside the EU. In Luxembourg, 20.5% were born in another country, largely within the EU (6.6% outside the EU compared to 13.9% in another member state); in Ireland, 12.0% were born in another country; in Sweden, 9.4% were born in another country, largely outside the EU (7.8% outside the EU compared to 1.6% in another member state). In Finland, 4.5% of people aged 14 and younger were born abroad and 10.6% had a foreign-background in 2021.[142] However, Gen Z from eastern Europe is much more homogenous: in Croatia, only 0.7% of those aged 14 and younger were foreign-born; in the Czech Republic, 1.1% aged 14 and younger were foreign-born.[141]
Higher portions of those ages 15 to 29 in 2019 (which includes younger Millennials) were foreign born in Europe. Luxembourg had the highest share of young people (41.9%) born in a foreign country. More than 20% of this age group were foreign-born in Cyprus, Malta, Austria and Sweden. The highest shares of non-EU born young adults were found in Sweden, Spain and Luxemburg. Like with those under age 14, countries in eastern Europe generally have much smaller populations of foreign-born young adults. Poland, Lithuania, Slovakia, Bulgaria and Latvia had the lowest shares of foreign-born young people, at 1.4 to 2.5% of the total age group.[141]
North America
Data from Statistics Canada published in 2017 showed that Generation Z comprised 17.6% of the Canadian population.[143]
A report by demographer William Frey of the Brookings Institution stated that in the United States, the Millennials are a bridge between the largely white pre-Millennials (Generation X and their predecessors) and the more diverse post-Millennials (Generation Z and their successors).[144] Frey's analysis of U.S. Census data suggests that as of 2019, 50.9% of Generation Z is white, 13.8% is black, 25.0% Hispanic, and 5.3% Asian.[145] 29% of Generation Z are children of immigrants or immigrants themselves, compared to 23% of Millennials when they were at the same age.[146]
Members of Generation Z are slightly less likely to be foreign-born than Millennials;[147] the fact that more American Latinos were born in the U.S. rather than abroad plays a role in making the first wave of Generation Z appear better educated than their predecessors. However, researchers warn that this trend could be altered by changing immigration patterns and the younger members of Generation Z choosing alternate educational paths.[148] As a demographic cohort, Generation Z is smaller than the baby boomers and their children, the Millennials.[149] According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Generation Z makes up about one quarter of the U.S. population, as of 2015.[150] There was an 'echo boom' in the 2000s, which certainly increased the absolute number of future young adults, but did not significantly change the relative sizes of this cohort compared to their parents.[151]
According to a 2022 Gallup survey, 20.8%, or about one in five, members of Gen Z identify as LGBTQ+.[152]
Consumption
As consumers, members of Generation Z are typically reliant to the Internet to research their options and to place orders. They tend to be skeptical and will shun firms whose actions and values are contradictory.[153][154] Their purchases are heavily influenced by trends promoted by "influencers" on social media,[155][156] as well as the fear of missing out (FOMO) and peer pressure.[157] The need to be "trendy" is a prime motivator.[156]
In the West, while majorities might signal their support for certain ideals such as "environmental consciousness" to pollsters, actual purchases do not reflect their stated views, as can be seen from their high demand for cheap but not durable clothing ("fast fashion"), or preference for rapid delivery.[153][154][155] Despite their socially progressive views, large numbers are still willing to purchase these items when human rights abuses in the developing countries that produce them are brought up.[156] However, young Western consumers of this cohort are less likely to pay a premium for what they want compared to their counterparts from emerging economies.[153][154]
In the United Kingdom, Generation Z's general avoidance of alcohol and tobacco has noticeably reduced government revenue in the form of the 'sin tax'.[158]
Employment
According to the International Labor Organization (ILA), the COVID-19 pandemic has amplified youth unemployment, but unevenly. By 2022, youth unemployment stood at 12.7% in Africa, 20.5% in Latin America, and 8.3% in North America.[159]
In the early 2020s, Chinese youths find themselves struggling with job hunting. University education offers little help.[160] In fact, due to the mismatch between education and the job market, those with no university qualifications are less likely to be unemployed.[161] By June 2023, China's unemployment rate for people aged 16 to 24 was about one fifth.[162] In Germany, some public officials are recommending shorter work weeks at the same salary levels in spite of the struggling German economy. The situation is similar in other European countries.[163] In the United States, the youth unemployment rate (16–24) was 7.5% in May 2023, the lowest in 70 years.[164] American high-school graduates could join the job market right away,[165] with employers offering them generous bonuses, high wages, and apprenticeship programs in order to offset the ongoing labor shortage.[166]
Since the mid-20th century, enrollment rates in primary schools has increased significantly in developing countries.[167] In 2019, the OECD completed a study showing that while education spending was up 15% over the previous decade, academic performance had stagnated.[46] Results from Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) in 2019 showed that the highest-scoring students in mathematics came from Asian polities and Russia.[46] The OECD's Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) tests administered in 2022 unveiled a noticeable decline in academic performance in most participating countries compared to before the COVID-19 pandemic. However, fifteen-year-old students (tenth graders) from Singapore, Macau, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan were largely unaffected or even saw an improvement. Once high-performing European countries—Iceland, Sweden, and Finland—continued their years-long decline. The U.S. national average remained behind those of other industrialized nations.[168][169]
Different nations and territories approach the question of how to nurture gifted students differently. During the 2000s and 2010s, whereas the Middle East and East Asia (especially China, Hong Kong, and South Korea) and Singapore actively sought them out and steered them towards top programs, Europe and the United States had in mind the goal of inclusion and chose to focus on helping struggling students. In 2010, for example, China unveiled a decade-long National Talent Development Plan to identify able students and guide them into STEM fields and careers in high demand; that same year, England dismantled its National Academy for Gifted and Talented Youth and redirected the funds to help low-scoring students get admitted to elite universities.[45] According to Haoyu Tan, China's expansion of higher education was done for political rather than economic reasons and as a result, by 2023, as many as one in five Chinese graduates struggled to find gainful employment.[170] Developmental cognitive psychologist David Geary observed that Western educators remained "resistant" to the possibility that even the most talented of schoolchildren needed encouragement and support and tended to concentrate on low performers. In addition, even though it is commonly believed that past a certain IQ benchmark (typically 120), practice becomes much more important than cognitive abilities in mastering new knowledge, recently published research papers based on longitudinal studies, such as the Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth (SMPY) and the Duke University Talent Identification Program, suggest otherwise.[45]
Since the early 2000s, the number of students from emerging economies going abroad for higher education has risen markedly. This was a golden age of growth for many Western universities admitting international students.[171] In the late 2010s, around five million students traveled abroad each year for higher education, with the developed world being the most popular destinations and China the biggest source of international students.[171] In 2019, the United States was the most popular destination for international students, with 30% of its international student body coming from mainland China, Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Japan.[172] Among children of the Chinese ruling class ("princelings"), attending elite institutions in the United States was commonplace and seen as a status symbol,[173] but the deterioration in the bilateral relationship as exemplified by President Donald Trump's entry restrictions on Chinese students in addition to the complications produced by the COVID-19 pandemic reduced the number of Chinese students enrolling in many American colleges and universities. Combined with other political and economic factors, some speculated that this trend marked the end of a golden age for higher education in the United States.[174][171] (Also see the higher-education bubble in the United States.) However, a 2023 report produced by the Institute of International Education said that international student enrollment for the 2022–2023 academic year in American higher education institutions had exceeded pre-pandemic levels. The rate of the enrollment growth was the fastest in 40 years, with strong growth coming from India and sub-Saharan Africa.[175]
By 2023, a number of countries, including Finland and the Netherlands, have decided to ban the use of mobile phones in the classroom to help their students concentrate better.[176]